Federal Aviation Administration s Policies - 1151 Words

In August of 2015, quickly approaching the September 30th renewal of the Federal Aviation Administration’s policies, many regional airlines questioned the amount of time required for commercial pilots to have under their training belt. As of 2013, it is an FAA standard that pilots training for their commercial license must accumulate 1,500 hours before they are considered to have completed the program. While 1,500 hours of flying time, especially for pilots of a commercial airplane, does not seem like much, the minimum amount of hours that they had to accumulate before the rule change was just a mere 250 hours of fly time. With an increase of 1,250 hours, many of the executives from these regional airlines are upset because of one effect†¦show more content†¦In some cases, an airline has even had to remove themselves from an airport due to the unpopularity or the inability to fund said airline flying out of that airport. While losing routes, and therefore revenue, is a big deal to most of these major airlines, the pilots of these airlines seem to have a different take on the problem. They believe it is the salary they get from the airline themselves that deters pilot from flying commercial planes. Pilots pay $150,000 to $200,000 to obtain their commercial license, while some airlines are only offering $21,000 or less as a starting salary. All in all, potential candidates for a commercial pilot’s license are having a hard time believing that their significant training expenses will be rewarded in the long run. Whatever the case may be to the shortage of pilots, there is one group fighting against any amendment or new legislation that would require, or encourage, pilots getting 1,500 hours before piloting a commercial plane for an airline. These are the families of the 50 people that died in a 2009 Colgan Airlines crash that happened in Buffalo, New York. In this case, the pilots were flying through a snowstorm, and on an improper response to a turboprop maneuver, the plane stalled and crashed, consequently. While the pilots’ lack of training was documented as the ultimate cause to this crash, the pilots of this flight had 3,379 and 2,244 hours of flying. So that begs the question,

How Gender Role Impacts on Identity Essay - 930 Words

When contemplating the topic of gender role and its impact on identity one cannot help but realise that these gender roles have a huge part to play on a person’s identity. As gender is a combination of male and female it gives way for a number of characteristics to accompany each sex making them different from each other. This has an important position to play on identity which Kath Woodward stated in her book â€Å"Questioning Identity: Gender, Class, Nation† where she said â€Å"Without difference there would not be such thing as identity†. (Woodward, 2000, pp.51) Unfortunately, however, with these differences there are inequalities. In this essay I would like to elaborate on this further by looking at the meaning of gender and how it impacts†¦show more content†¦Gender can be described as â€Å"the social attributes associated with being a woman or a man in a particular society† (Woodward, 2000, pp.47) A person’s gender is then determine d by their sex which is â€Å"a biological classification†. (Woodward, 2000, pp.47) As gender is a social attribute the identities of people of different genders vary from society to society. For example, in many religions, women do not have place in the rituals of the religion as it is simply only for men to do. (Chryssides and Geaves, 2013, pp.331) As religions were formed in certain cultures this shows a clear divide caused by gender roles based on the cultural origin of the religion but also shows that this has an impact on the identities of the male and female members of the religion. This being that the males feel they have more authority over the females of the religion. A lot of inequality among the sexes is simply based on stereotypes. Stereotypes can be explained as â€Å"one-sided and exaggerated images of men and women which are deployed repeatedly in everyday life†. (Scott and Marshal, 2009, pp. 279) A great example of stereotypical sexist views is portray ed in the humours video of the character Ali G who interviewed a lady about her views on feminism. In this video he seems to be making fun of some sexist notions such as the idea of people being uncomfortable about flying in a plane piloted by a femaleShow MoreRelatedThere Comes A Time In Life Where We Finally Reach A Point1683 Words   |  7 Pagesfor each gender that they are expecting. A feminine floral pink baby shower for a girl or a blue, masculine one for a boy. 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Energy Requirements In Post Combustion Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

string(50) " in net kWh end product for a fixed energy input\." Recently there has been increased involvement in C gaining control engineerings. There are a figure of factors act uponing this increased consciousness. There is increased credence that important decreases in CO2 emanations are required to avoid earnestly impacting the planetary clime, these decreases are improbable to be achieved through decreases in planetary energy demand. We will write a custom essay sample on Energy Requirements In Post Combustion Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Therefore capturing CO2 before it enters the ambiance becomes a feasible option to cut down emanations. Post-combustion CO2 gaining control ( PCC ) engineering is a promising engineering that has possible to significantly cut down CO2 emanations from big point beginnings such as power workss. The chief advantage that station burning gaining control engineerings have over other gaining control methods is that bing power workss can be retrofitted with the engineering leting for a more immediate decrease in C emanations than is possible with the other possible engineerings. This is an of import consideration as the typical lifetime of a coal fired power works is 25 old ages which means that merely PCC can efficaciously turn to emanations from most of the universes presently runing power Stationss. However, PCC incurs higher energy punishments than pre-combustion gaining control engineerings and because there are non sufficient fiscal and legislative punishments for CO2 emanations PCC h as yet to be demonstrated on a full graduated table footing and hence these energy costs can merely be quantified on a theoretical footing. Coal holds the largest portion of worldwide electric power production by a broad border, accounting for 40 % of universe energy supply in 2008. With this figure merely expected to somewhat diminish to 37 % by 2035 [ 1 ] . Because of coals laterality of the energy production sector and the higher C emanations associated with the combustion of coal we will concentrate on the energy efficiencies associated with using PCC to these workss. Modern coal fired power workss operate by using powdered coal. This coal is assorted with air and so fire in a boiler. The steam generated is used to turn a turbine generator and the waste burning gases are released to the ambiance. These gases consist chiefly of nitrogen plus H2O and CO2. Additional merchandises, depending on the pureness of the coal used, can include sulphur dioxide and N oxides. A typical powdered coal power works emits about 743 g/kWhr of CO2 [ 2 ] . As CO2 typically merely accounts for 12.5-12.8 % of the entire flue gas volume the separation of this from the other constituents is non a simple undertaking and requires energy input to accomplish. Minimum Energy Requirement The thermodynamic lower limit specific energy demand for CO2 gaining control is shown in Figure. If an mean provender gas mole fraction of 12 % is taken so we can see that about 20 % extra energy is required in order to accomplish 100 % CO2 separation. Figure: Minimum specific energy demand for separation as a map of molar fraction in the provender gas for different fractional remotion ( T= 313 K ) [ 3 ] . In add-on to being separated from the remainder of the fluke gases the CO2 besides needs to be compressed from atmospheric force per unit areas to force per unit areas of typically 15 MPa, which are more contributing for station burning storage or transit. The minimal energy demand in order to accomplish a compaction from 0.1MPa at a temperature of 313 K to 15 MPa is 0.068 kWh/kg CO2. Figure shows the minimal energy demand for separation both with and without compaction procedure, presuming a gas mole fraction of 12 % . If we take the Siemens system for PCC as a criterion ; it removes 90 % of CO2 [ 4 ] from the flue gases. This represents 0.114 kWh/kg CO2 theoretical lower limit energy demand. Figure: Minimum specific energy demand for CO2 gaining control and compaction ( 12 % molar fluke gas concentration ) as a map of fractional CO2 remotion: separation merely and separation with compaction to 15 MPa [ 3 ] . CO2 Absorption Process There are a figure of different methods being developed to divide CO2 from the other end product flue gases. Currently absorption procedures appear to be the taking engineering so they will be the focal point of this treatment. Figure shows a typical schematic for a station burning CO2 soaking up procedure. First, the fluke gases are passed through a ice chest, which is required to cut down ammonium hydroxide release in the absorber and diminish the volume of the flue gases. A fan is so required to pump the gas through the absorber which contains the chemical absorbents. The absorbent stuff which now contains the chemically bound CO2 is pumped to the desorber via a lean-rich heat money changer. The desorber regenerates the chemical absorbent by utilizing an addition in temperature ( 370-410 K ) and pressures between 1 and 2 bara. Heat is besides supplied to the re-boiler to keep regeneration conditions for the chemical absorbent which means the procedure incurs an extra energy punishment as the heat is required for steam production which acts as a denudation agent to divide the CO2 from the chemical absorber. The steam is recovered and fed back into the stripper while the extremely pure CO2 gas ( A ; gt ; 99 % pureness ) leaves the compressor. The absorber chemical, which has had the CO2 removed is fed back into the absorber [ 3 ] . Figure: Schematic of typical station burning gaining control procedure [ 5 ] . Clearly this procedure involves a serious energy punishment as the extra procedures add much greater losingss to the system than the theoretical lower limit energy demands calculated earlier. Table shows the important works efficiency punishment which is the cost of the C gaining control procedure. This efficiency bead is due to increasing resource ingestion per unit of electricity produced and additions in chilling H2O ingestion per unit of electricity produced. Power works and gaining control system type Internet works efficiency without CCS Internet works efficiency with CCS CCS Energy Penalty Additional energy input per cyberspace kWh end product Decrease in net kWh end product for a fixed energy input. Existing subcritical Personal computer, post-combustion gaining control 33 % 23 % 43 % 30 % New supercritical Personal computer, post-combustion gaining control 40 % 31 % 29 % 23 % Table: Valuess for cyberspace pulverised coal power works efficiencies with and without CCS [ 6 ] . This lessening in efficiency means that more fuel is required in order to bring forth the same sum of electricity as before the PCC procedure was added. From Table it can be seen that newer, more efficient workss suffer lower energy punishments when PCC is applied. The bing subcritical powdered coal works a 43 % addition in energy input per kWh end product compared with 29 % for a new supercritical pulverised coal works. Thermal energy demands are the most important factor in the increased energy demands and are the chief challenge confronting efforts to diminish these losingss. Thermal Energy Requirements Chemical soaking up is normally used in industry to take gases and drosss from high value merchandises like H or methane. The issue that arises in using this engineering to the power coevals sector is that it consequences in much larger decreases in efficiencies. while taking H2S from H for illustration may merely take 2.5 % [ 2 ] of the energy content of the H, this loss is much larger in power coevals as antecedently shown. Binding Energy Requirement The heat which is required to interrupt the bond between the CO2 and the absorbent is an of import factor to be taken into consideration. This can be reduced by the usage of aminoalkanes as they can possess a lower binding energy for CO2. Absorbent material Heat of soaking up ( GJ/tonnes CO2 ) MEA-H2O 1.92 DGA-H2O 1.91 DIPA-H2O 1.67 DEA-H2O 1.63 AMP-H2O 1.52 MIDEA-H2O 1.34 TEA -H2O 1.08 Water 0.39 Table: Typical Heat of Absorption for Common Liquid Absorbents [ 7 ] . Table shows the values for heat of soaking up for the most normally used liquid absorbents. MEA-H2O possesses the highest value for adhering energy to the CO2. If this value could be reduced the sum of energy which would be required to divide the CO2 from the absorbent could be significantly decreased. Future developments in chemical absorbents could see the debut of hydrogen carbonate formation, which has been shown to hold the lowest binding energy of any chemical absorbent [ 3 ] taking to important lessening in the energy punishments encountered by the system. Heating of Absorbent in Desorber The energy consumed by the absorbent heating up in the stripper can be reduced by take downing the heat money changer attack temperature and diminishing the volume of dissolver flow through the desorber. This can be achieved through the usage of 2nd coevals sterically hindered aminoalkanes. This has possible to duplicate the molar capacity of the absorbent. This could take to a bead in energy demand from 1.2 GJ/tonne CO2 to 0.8 GJ/tonne CO2 which represents two tierces of the first coevals demands. Further betterments in these countries could finally take to 0.08 GJ/tonne CO2 which is predicted for 4th coevals aminoalkanes and attack temperatures [ 3 ] . Reflux Ratio Depriving steam in the desorber has to drive the CO2 through the desorption procedure and supply the heat demand of the overall desorber and releases this heat when condensed and this heat is lost in the chilling H2O. Typically the reflux ratio achieved, expressed as H2O/tonnes CO2, is 0.7. This can be improved through the usage of absorbents that posses a higher Carbon dioxide to H2O ratio at the desorber issue. With a 0.1 ratio seen as possible for 4th coevals absorbents. Entire Thermal Energy Requirement Reductions Table shows how these factors could diminish the thermic energy demand as new coevalss of chemical absorbents are introduced. Decreases in entire thermic energy demand of up to 80 % may be possible if these engineerings can be implemented. Procedure Generation Status G1 G2 G3 G4 Binding Energy ( MJ/kmol CO2 ) 80 70 55 30 Desorber attack temperature ( K ) 15 10 5 3 Solvent Flow ( m3/tonnes CO2 ) 20 10 8 4 Reflux Ratio ( metric tons H2O/tonnes CO2 ) 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.1 Entire Thermal Energy Requirement ( GJ/tonnes CO2 ) 4.56 3.31 2.29 0.95 Table: Possible thermic energy demand betterments [ 3 ] . Power Requirements Power is required to drive a figure of facets of the PCC procedure: Fan power demand which is determined by the flow rate required and per centum remotion of CO2 sought. Liquid absorbent pump power. Affected by the degree of absorptive regeneration and other such procedures Compaction power demands which depend on the CO2 belongingss and the degrees of compaction required. Current coevals power demand is 0.154 MWh/tonnes CO2 with the mentality for power economy outlined in Table. Procedure Generation Status G1 G2 G3 G4 Entire Power ( MWh/tonnes CO2 ) 0.154 0.138 0.122 0.105 Table: Possible power demand betterments [ 3 ] . Decision While involvement and investing in research in the country of PCC has increased in recent times the procedure is still in the really early phases of development and at the minute the energy costs involved in using this engineering to char discharged power workss make it highly inefficient and economically impracticable. Table shows that in all cases PCC can take to enormous lessenings in the sum of CO2 which emanating from coal fired power workss. However, first coevals PCC engineerings lead to a 40 % lessening in the works efficiency ensuing in 65 % addition in coal ingestion to bring forth the same sum of electricity. PCC Generation Status G1 G2 G3 G4 Efficiency with no gaining control ( % ) 35 41 46 50 CO2 Emission ( No gaining control ) ( metric tons CO2/MWh ) 0.928 0.792 0.706 0.650 Efficiency with 90 % gaining control ( % ) 21.2 31.6 39.7 45.8 CO2 Emission ( with gaining control ) ( metric tons CO2/MWh ) 0.153 0.103 0.082 0.071 Increase in Coal usage due to Capture ( % ) 65 30 16 9 Table: Overall mentality for PCC [ 3 ] . Because these engineerings are in the really early phases of developments there is a immense range for efficiency betterments in both the thermic energy required and the power demands for the procedure. It is seen as an accomplishable end that as engineering is developed that PCC could ensue in every bit small as a 4.2 % lessening in overall works efficiency and a 9 % addition in coal ingestion. These decreases are cardinal to the future use of PCC engineering as if it is non economically feasible for the procedure to be used it will ne’er be adopted. 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